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Psychopharmacology is the study of the effects of any psychoactive drug that acts upon the mind by affecting brain chemistry. Amanita muscaria (the common Fly Agaric) is often regarded as the first such drug, with modern theories positing the discovery of its psychoactive properties circa 10,000 BCE. Modern psychopharmacology studies a wide range of chemicals with many different types of effect.
History
Psychoactive drug use predates recorded history. Hunter-gatherer societies tended to favor hallucinogenic drugs, and today their use can still be observed in many surviving tribal cultures. The exact drug used depends on what the particular ecosystem a given tribe lives in can support, and are typically found growing wild. Such drugs include various hallucinogenic mushrooms and cacti, along with many other plants. These societies generally attach spiritual significance to drug use, and often incorporate it into their religious practices.
With the dawn of the Neolithic and the proliferation of agriculture, new entheogens came into use as a natural by-product of farming. Among them were opium, cannabis, and alcohol derived from the fermentation of cereals and fruits. Most societies began developing herblores, lists of herbs which were good for treating various physical and mental ailments. For example, St. John's Wort was traditionally prescribed in Europe for depression (in addition to use as a general-purpose good-tasting tea), and Chinese medicine developed elaborate lists of herbs and preparations.
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Alterations of the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations in treatment-resistant and treatment-response depression: A resting-state fMRI study.
Guo WB, Liu F, Xue ZM, Xu XJ, Wu RR, Ma CQ, Wooderson SC, Tan CL, Sun XL, Chen JD, Liu ZN, Xiao CQ, Chen HF, Zhao JP Alterations of the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations in treatment-resistant and treatment-response depression: A resting-state fMRI study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Jan 28; Authors: Guo WB, Liu F, Xue ZM, Xu XJ, Wu RR, Ma CQ, Wooderson SC, Tan CL, Sun XL, Chen JD, Liu ZN, Xiao CQ, Chen HF, Zhao JP Abstract BACKGROUND: Patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD) and those with treatment-response depression (TSD) respond to antidepressants differently and previous studies have commonly reported different brain networks in resistant and nonresistant patients. Using the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) approach, we explored ALFF values of the brain regions in TRD and TSD patients at resting state to test the hypothesis of the different brain networks in TRD and TSD patients. METHODS: Eighteen TRD patients, 17 TSD patients and 17 gender-, age-, and education-matched healthy subjects participated in the resting-state fMRI scans. RESULTS: There are widespread differences in ALFF values among TRD patients, TSD patients and healthy subjects throughout the cerebellum, the visual recognition circuit (middle temporal gyrus, middle/inferior occipital gyrus and fusiform), the hate circuit (putamen), the default circuit (ACC and medial frontal gyrus) and the risk/action circuit (inferior frontal gyrus). The brain circuits between the TRD and TSD patients are mainly in the cerebellum, the visual recognition circuit and the default circuit. CONCLUSIONS: The affected brain circuits of TRD patients might be partly different from those of TSD patients. PMID: 22306865 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in schizoaffective disorder: Comparison of bipolar disorder and schziophrenia.
Kalaycı D, Ozdel O, Sözeri-Varma G, Kıroğlu Y, Tümkaya S A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in schizoaffective disorder: Comparison of bipolar disorder and schziophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Jan 28; Authors: Kalaycı D, Ozdel O, Sözeri-Varma G, Kıroğlu Y, Tümkaya S Abstract The aim of this study was to compare schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia based on (1)H-MRS metabolite values in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and executive functions. The subjects comprised 15 patients with bipolar disorder type I (BD), 15 with schizophrenia (SCH), 15 with schizoaffective disorder (SAD) and 15 healthy controls. We performed proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) bilaterally. Levels of N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), choline-containing compounds (Cho) and creatine-containing compounds (Cr) were measured in the DLPFC using (1)H-MRS. We administered the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and the Stroop Test (ST) to evaluate executive functions. The SAD, BD and SCH patients had lower levels of NAA than the control group. The SAD and BD patients had low levels of Cho compared to the control group. The left DLPFC Cr levels in all of the patient groups and the right DLPFC Cr levels in the BD and SAD groups were lower than in the control group. The levels of NAA Cho and Cr were not related to executive functions and attention performance. Cr level were related to attention processes, only in SCH. Our results indicate that NAA levels are reduced in schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, but the reduction in the levels of NAA is not a distinctive feature among these three illnesses. Schizoaffective and bipolar disorders have similar features related to the levels of compounds containing Cho and Cr. This similarity may be related to these illnesses both having an affective basis. PMID: 22306485 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
4therapy.com - Psychiatric Medications - Information for patients covers most major psychotherapeutic drugs, including the conditions they are prescribed to treat, how they work, and necessary precautions. Information undated.
Meta Description: [ Find the best drug rehabilitation treatment centers, psychologists, therapist and eating disorder treatment centers. Also featuring rapid detox, drug addiction programs suited to yourur specific needs. ]
A Reevaluation of the Relationship Between Psychiatric Diagnosis and Chemical Imbalances - An article about the relationship between psychiatric diagnosis and chemical imbalances
APA Division of Psychopharmacology and Substance Abuse - The APA's page dedicated to drugs, medication and substance abuse. An online newsletter, public policy advisories, action alerts, web resources.
APA Psychiatric Medications Overview - APA article and resources regarding psychiatric medications.
Meta Description: [ All about psychiatric medications. Mental Health communities for people with psychiatric disorders, their families, friends. Expert information, mental health support groups, chat, journals, buddy lists. ]
Atlantic Psychopharmacology Quarterly - Journal on psychiatric medication. The first issue is free and available online.
Basic Psychopharmacology of Antidepressants - How do antidepressants work? TCAs, SSRIs, RIMAs, psychopharmacological options and choices, Bupropion Amineptine, Reboxetine, Nefazodone, Mirtazapine, Venlafaxine Antidepressants, Tranylcypromine, medication for Atypical Depression and Retarded Depression .
Meta Description: [ how do antidepressants work? ]
Crazy Meds - Mental Illness With an Attitude - A guide to psychiatric medications from first-hand experience, anecdotal evidence and personal research.
Depression Drugs Blog - The effects of various antidepressant drugs.
Drug Therapy of Mood Disorders - A compendium of information on psychopharmacology and the drug treatment of individuals with psychiatric disorders.
Meta Description: [ A authoritative compendium of information
on all aspects of psychopharmacology and drug treatment for people with mood disorders. ]
Drugs, Brains and Behavior - Textbook of behavioral pharmacology, by C. R. Timmons and L. W. Hamilton, freely available in its entirety.
Meta Description: [ Drugs, Brains and Behavior, a textbook of behavioral pharmacology by C. R. Timmons and L. W. Hamilton, is freely available in its entirety at http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/ and at http://www.users.drew.edu/ctimmons/drugs/. ]
HealthyPlace Psychiatric Medications - Usage, dosage, side effects of psychiatric medications including ADHD medications, antidepressants, antipsychotics and antianxiety medications
Meta Description: [ Psychiatric medications pharmacology. Usage, dosage, side effects of psychiatric medications including antidepressants, antipsychotics, antianxiety medications. ]
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Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress Online - Online book about the latest developments in neuropsychopharmacology by the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology.
Pacific Neuropsychiatric Institute: Psychopharmacology - Psychopharmacology - the Study of Psychiatric Drugs: research abstracts, recommended reading,ethics, geriatric psychopharmacology, recreational drugs, forensics, neuropsychiatry and links.
Meta Description: [ The Pacific Neuropsychiatric Institute
(PNI) is involved with comprehensive evaluation and management in
Neuropsychiatry and Psychopharmacology at the clinical, research,
forensic, education and phenomenologic levels. ]
Pioneer Pharmaceutical Research - Information about clinical trials for pharmaceutical companies, Central Nervous System medications in all mental disorders, with emphasis on in bipolar disorders and schizophrenia, and psychopharmacological news.
Meta Description: [ Pioneer Behavioral Health is to help people gain and maintain physical, spiritual and emotional health. Pioneer Healthcare does so by developing and delivering the highest quality, most culturally responsive, compassionate and competitive services to individuals, corporations and identified commu... ]
Project MED - Project MED booklets - table of contents of psychopharmacological medication guides.
Psychiatric Drug Facts - Peter R. Breggin, M.D., presents his views about the potential dangers of SSRIs, psychostimulants, benzodiazepines, antipsychotic drugs, electroshock, and other treatments. Books available for sale.
Meta Description: [ Peter R. Breggin MD, psychiatrist, author and medical expert provides up to date information on psychiatric drugs, adverse drug effects, and recent criminal, malpractice, and product liability cases. ]
Psychopharmacology Links - Links to information on specific psychiatric medications and to psychopharmacological web sites.Maintained by the Northern County Psychiatric Association.
Meta Description: [ Links to information on specific psychiatric medications. balanced perspective, no ads, not affiliated with pharmaceutical companies ]
Psychopharmacology Tips - These tips are just that -- tips -- and not (with some exceptions) the results of scientific studies. They should not be construed as providing diagnosis, medical advice, or treatment.
Psychopharmacology Update Notes - Analyses of the comparative effectiveness, side effects and toxicity of psychotropic drugs with emphases on serotonin syndrome and monoamine oxidase inhibitors.
PsychopharmINFO - Daily and monthly updates of Medline research articles about psychiatric medications, mostly antidepressants.
Stimulant Plants - Brief definition of neuropharmacology and psychopharmacology and surveys of the most commonly used drugs that originate as stimulant plants.
The Good Drug Guide - Mood-brighteners and antidepressants - pharmacological abstracts, couched in an unorthodox life philosophy.
Meta Description: [ What's the best way to abolish mental pain? ]
The Neuropsychopharmacology of Personality Disorders - Article regarding the neuropsychopharmacology of personality disorders.
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Virtual Hospital: Clinical Psychopharmacology Seminar - A textbook of psychopharmacology: disorders, medical treatments and specific drugs and medication regimes.
Meta Description: [ Virtual Hospital was a digital library of health information in pediatrics, paediatrics, and radiology for pediatric education and radiology education ]
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